A Comprehensive Review of Concrete Durability in Freeze-Thaw Conditions: Mechanisms, Prevention, and Mitigation Strategies

Abstract

Freeze-thaw (F-T) damage is a critical factor affecting the durability of concrete in cold climates. This study provides a comprehensive review of F-T deterioration mechanisms and evaluates strategies to mitigate such damage. Key internal processes, including hydrostatic and osmotic pressure, salt crystallization, and the micro-ice lens hypothesis, are identified as primary contributors to internal cracking, pore pressure buildup, and crystalline expansion, which lead to material degradation. Critical saturation is highlighted as a crucial parameter in assessing concrete's susceptibility to F-T damage. Among the mitigation strategies, air-entraining agents (AEA) are recognized as the most effective, as they create micro-air voids that accommodate freezing water, thereby reducing internal stresses and minimizing crack formation. Additionally, surface strengthening techniques and fiber reinforcement show promise in enhancing concrete's resilience against F-T cycles by improving its structural integrity and flexibility. Despite the advancements in mitigation strategies, challenges remain, particularly concerning the complex interactions between F-T cycles, de-icing salts, and concrete's material properties. Further research is needed to refine predictive models and develop advanced material modifications to enhance the long-term performance of concrete in F-T environments. This study underscores the necessity for continued investigation to develop more resilient concrete structures, particularly for infrastructure exposed to severe freezing and thawing conditions. © 2025 Institution of Structural Engineers