Glacial Geomorphology and Palaeoglacial Modeling of Mount Kandil (South of the Lesser Caucasus, Eastern Türkiye)

Abstract

Mount Kandil is situated in the eastern sector of the EAHP (Eastern Anatolian High Plateau), to the south of the Lesser Caucasus. The mountain lies at the westernmost end of the Aras Mountains, which extends approximately 80 km along a NW–SE axis. With a summit reaching ∼3214 m (a.s.l.), Mount Kandil is a stratovolcano that, like many other peaks within the EAHP and the Lesser Caucasus, experienced significant environmental changes during Late Pleistocene. Among these, glacial processes stand out as the most profound, having distinctly shaped the mountains geomorphic landscape. This study presents, for the first time, a comprehensive analysis of the glacial morphology of Mount Kandil based on multiple datasets. Field-based morphological observations indicate that an area of approximately 32.62 km2 has been sculpted by glacial activity. Within six glaciated regions on Mount Kandil, 25 cirques and 6 glacial valleys have been identified. In addition, moraines in various locations exhibit characteristic morphologies. Furthermore, valley glaciers are inferred to have descended to altitudes as low as ∼2000 m. The paleo-equilibrium line (pELA) was estimated to use AABR method within GIS, yielding a mean pELA of ∼2730 m. Ice thickness modelling indicates that the thickness of glaciers in the Kandil Mountain valleys reaches up to ∼350 m. Due to its orographic extension, Mount Kandil is exposed to humid northwest winds and receives substantial frontal precipitation (∼686 mm annually). The compiled geomorphic, cartographic and morphometric parameters suggest that the glaciation dynamics of Mount Kandil—situated between the Southeastern Taurus and the Lesser Caucasus—closely resemble those observed in the Lesser Caucasus. This indicates that glaciation was primarily governed by northern atmospheric systems with additional influences from southerly or westerly winds. The integrated data also underscores the role of multiple atmospheric systems in controlling the glaciation regime around the Lesser Caucasus. Additionally, findings on regional pELA question the common belief that pELA increases eastward in EAHP. © Science Press, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, CAS and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2026.