Toxic Element Exposure and Bioactivity of Herbalist-Sourced Salvia Officinalis: Comprehensive Health Risk Assessment From Eastern Türkiye

Abstract

Salvia officinalis (sage) leaves were gathered from five districts in Van Province, Türkiye (İpekyolu, Erciş, Gevaş, Başkale, and Muradiye), and their antioxidant capacity, phenolic composition, heavy metal contamination, mineral content, and structural properties were investigated in this study. The widespread availability of Salvia officinalis in herbal shops and open markets across Türkiye, combined with its extensive use in traditional medicine, led to its selection. This study aimed to evaluate potential health risks associated with herbalist-sourced samples and to establish a model for assessing the safety of other unregulated medicinal plants sold in comparable environments. Elemental analysis was used to determine protein levels and the contents of C, N, and H. At the same time, a combination of analytical methods including ICP-OES, AAS, DUMAS method, and SEM–EDX was employed to determine levels of hazardous metals (Cr, Mn, Cd, As, Co, Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu) and essential minerals (Ca, Mg, Na, K). Antioxidant capacity was evaluated using DPPH, CUPRAC, and ABTS tests, and HPLC was used to identify the phenolic profiles. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content, especially gallic and vanillic acids, were higher in Sample S1 compared to other samples. Nevertheless, dangerous levels of heavy metals were also present. Sample S1 exhibited substantial carcinogenic (CR > 1 × 10⁻3) and non-carcinogenic (HI > 6) health hazards, according to health risk indicators such as estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), and hazard index (HI). This research demostrates that medicinal plants should undergo routine safety screening, especially those marketed through unregulated sources. © 2025 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.